Nature of Knowledge Essay

In the study of knowledge we distinguish between knowledge by acquaintance, in essence to know someone or know of something. Ability knowledge is for example to know how to swim or how to ride a bike. And, our main concern, propositional knowledge that is sentences or statements that can be either true or false. To have knowledge one needs to have a belief and for this belief to be true. The following text will show how true belief, even if it is justified in a rational way, does not suffice for knowledge. Take Nina, she is walking by some slot machines in the casino. She feels drawn to one of the machines, and believes it is her lucky day and that she will win because of the nice appealing colors on the slot machine. She places her bet, the wheels spin and line up three lucky 7’s, she wins and her belief turns out to be a true one. But while her belief being true, intuitively this do not suffice for knowledge, as it is easy to ascribe this winning to pure chance. Even if different suppositions may justify Nina’s belief in winning, it is natural to think that what Nina lacks in this situation to have knowledge, is justification. And also for this justification to be strong enough for Nina to be a rational being in believing she will win, without need to turn to superstition or vagueness to explain her belief. But even if Nina where to have a justified true belief, which she formed in a rational way, it is easy to show that this neither suffice for knowledge. Say Nina is a con girl, she has tricked the manager of the slot machine manufacturer to give her a manual, showing all the results the machine can produce, together with a serial number for each spin which is also displayed on the slot machine. So it is easy to look down in the manual what the next result will be. It is noon and Nina is now standing in front of the slot machine in the casino. She reads the serial number in the display and matches it in her manual. The next spin will line up three lucky 7’s and win. She places her bet and spins the wheel. Unbeknown to Nina there was an error when printing the manual so all the numbers are mixed up, making the manual useless. And this day the casino owner celebrates his 60th birthday by letting all the machines go off program at noon and give every placed bet at that time the three lucky 7’s line up. Nina’s justified belief turned out to be true, but due to lucky and unlucky circumstances we do not ascribe knowledge to Nina in this situation. Nina was responsible and rational when forming her belief, considering she went the length to trick the boss to give her the manual to see which spins win. If her goal is to win at slots, she was responsible when gathering evidence and responsible and rational in believing her evidence. And even if this example showed that an agent with a justified true belief formed in a rational and responsible way, do not necessarily have knowledge. It is easy to see that even if the agent lacks knowledge, she will often be successful in reaching her goals, because of the rational way she gains justification for her beliefs. Though it is not sufficient or may not even be necessary to have justified true beliefs when trying to grasp the nature of knowledge. Bibliography: Pritchard D. (2006) What is this thing called knowledge?, Routledge, Oxon

Neorealist and Neo-Marxist Approaches to Globalization Essay

Neo-realism According to Jackson and Sorensen (2003), the leading contemporary neorealist thinker is undoubtedly Kenneth Waltz (1979). His starting point is taken from some elements of classical and neoclassical, such as independent state existing and performing in an anarchical international system. Waltz’s Theory of international Politics (1979) seeks to provide a scientific explanation of the international political system. A scientific theory of international relations leads us to expect the certain pattern that states to behave in predictable ways. In Waltz’s view the best IR theory is a neo-realist systems theory that focuses centrally on the structure of the system, on its interacting units, and on the continuities and changes of the system. In classical realism, state leaders and their subjective valuation of international relations are the center factor of valuation. In neorealism, however, the structure of the system, in particular the relative distribution of power, is t he central analytical focus. Actors are less important because structures oblige them to behave in certain ways. Structures more or less determine actions. Chris Brown (2001) in his book ‘Understanding International Relations’ states that once we concentrate on the system we can see, he suggests, that there are only two kinds of accessible system – a hierarchical or an anarchical system. The distinction between hierarchy and anarchy is crucial to Waltz; the present system, he claims, is obviously anarchical, and has been since its late medieval origins (Brown, 2001). In hierarchical system, different kinds of units are organized and adjusted under an absolute layer of authority. Meanwhile, in an anarchical system, units which are the same in nature, even though they differ severally in capabilities, operate relations with one another. States, to some extent, are alike in all basic functional respects. In spite of the difference in cultures or personnel or ideologies or constitution, they all perform the same basic tasks. All states have to collect taxes, conduct foreign policy, and so on. States significantly differ only in regard to their greatly varying capabilities. (Jackson and Sorensen, 2003) In their book ‘World politics in the 21st Century’, Duncan, Jancar-Webster and Switky (2006) stated that Waltz agrees that people by nature are self-fish and that they are driven by a hunger for power. But Waltz no longer considers power an end in itself. States, in his view, hunt power for the sake of survival. For Waltz, the single most important property of the international system is the unavailability of central governing institutions. Overall, neo-realists agree with the 3 following points stated. First, states stay the primary actors on the world stage. The main target of all states, however, is not power but survival in a ‘dog-eat-dog’ environment. Second, the primary difference between states is not different goals but their own particular capabilities to influence the course of international events. The last thing to note is neo-realists believe that the unequal distribution of capabilities characterizes the structure of the international system and shapes the ways states interact with one another. As stated above, Waltz takes classical and neoclassical realism as a starting point and develops some of its core ideas and assumptions. For example, he employs the concept of international anarchy and focuses absolutely on states. He also concentrates on the core feature of anarchical systems of state: power politics. He assumes that the key and necessary concern of states is security and survival. He also believes that the major problem of great-power conflict is war, and that the major task of international relations among the great powers is that of peace and security. In addition, with Waltz’s neorealist theory, decentralization of anarchical structure between states is the elemental characteristic of international relations. International change takes place when great powers rise and fall and followed by the shift in the balance of power (Jackson and Sorensen, 2003). The international system is a self-help system; states are obliged to look after themselves, because there is no one else to look after them. Waltz does not assume that states are pursuing the increase in their power and the importance of them between others states, necessarily aggressive body, but he does believe that they desire to preserve themselves. This means that they are obliged to be considered with their security, national defence and obliged to regard other states as potential threats (Brown, 2001). Waltz believes that bipolar systems provide more stability and thus provide a better guarantee of security and peace than multipolar systems. ‘With only two great powers, both can be expected to behave in a way to prolong the system’ (Waltz, 1979). That is because in maintaining the system they are maintaining themselves. According to that view, the Cold War was a period of international stability and peace. (Jackson and Sorensen, 2003) Neo-Marxism The writings of Karl Marx (1818-83), according to Mingst (1999), are fundamental to the Marxist school of thought, even though he did not directly state all the issues that are today encompassed by Marxism. The theory of Marx on the evolution of capitalism based on economic change and class conflict: the capitalism of nineteenth century Europe emerged out of the earlier feudal system. In capitalism, private interests control the labor forces and market exchanges, creating enslavement from which certain classes try to free themselves. A clash inevitably will rise between the controlling, capitalist bourgeois class and the controlled workers, called the proletariat. It is from this violent conflict that a new socialist order is born. Contemporary interpretations origin with the works of Marx, but they have developed ideas in quite different directions. Sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein (1930- ), for one, associates history and the rise of capitalism, in what is known as the world-capita list system perspective. Mingst (1999), claimed that at each stage of the historical progression, Wallerstein determines core geographic areas where developments is most advanced, the agriculture sector being able to support enough sustenance for the industrial workers. He identifies peripheral areas as well, where raw materials are extracted for the developed core and where unskilled labour is mired and suffer in less-productive activities. Thus, for Wallerstein and his enthusiasms, as for most Marxists, attention is embedded on the changes in the spreading phenomenon system of capitalism. No political configuration can be explained without reference to the elemental structure of capitalism: â€Å"if there is one thing which differentiates a world-system perspective from any other, it is its insistence that the unit of analysis is a world-system defined in terms of economic progressions and associations. Mingst (1999) also claims that another group of Marxists scholar assumes the primacy of economics for e xplaining almost all other phenomena. This clearly distinguishes Marxism from either realism or liberalism. For liberals, economic interdependence is one possible clarification for international cooperation, but only one among any other features. For realists and neo-realists, economics factors are one of the elements of power, one component of the international structure. In neither theory, though, is economics the determining factor. In Marxism, on the other hand, economic factors are believed to be primary importance. Antonio Gramsci (1891 – 1937) was a Sardinian and one of the founding members of the Italian Communist Party. Gramsci’s work has become particularly influential in the study of International Political Economy. Hobden and Jones (2008) have been discussed Gramsci’s legacy, and the work of Robert W. Cox, a contemporary theorist who has been influencing in introducing Gramsci’s work to an International Relations audience. Gramsci’s theory revolves around his use of the concept of hegemony. Neo-Gramscian international political economy presents the most prevailing Marxist theory in the contemporary international relations discourse. On Gramsci’s readings, consent is created and re-created by the hegemony of the ruling class in society. It is this hegemony that allows the noble, political and cultural values of the dominant group to become widely spread throughout society and to be accepted by subordinate groups and classes as their own. The concept of hegemony composes the central analytical category to understand history of world orders with a view to construct counter-hegemonic prescriptions against them. In contrast to realism, which introduce the definition of international hegemony based on the concentration of material power in one dominant state, neo-Gramscians claim that liberal international hegemonies are based on the universalization of particular state-society complexes, maint ained primarily by consensus establishment between hegemonic and hegemonized states, rather than on crude power politics alone (Reus-Smit and Snidal, 2010). Neo-Gramscian thought entered international relations primarily through the work of Robert Cox, who acquired categories of analysis from Gramsci’s writings and applied them to international relations. Hegemonic power is conceptualized as a ‘mutually irreducible configuration’ between different schools of thought, beliefs, institutions, and material capacities that are widely agreed as legitimate. Social forces, states and world orders are inter-connected as dialectical wholes, bound together in world hegemonies. (Reus-Smit and Snidal, 2010). The person who has done the most to introduce Gramsci to the study of world politics is the Canadian scholar Robert X. Cox. (Hobden and Jones, 2008). He has developed a Gramscian access that involves both a critique of prevailing theories of International Relations and International Political Economy, and the development of an alternative scheme for the analysis of world politics. Cox draws upon Gramsci’s notion of hegemony and transposes it to the international dimension, arguing that hegemony is as important for maintaining stability and continuity here as it is at domestic level. According to Cox, successive dominant powers in the international system fulfill their interests by shaping a world order that suits them, and have done so not only as a result of their forceful capabilities, but also because they have managed to introduce broad consent for that order even among those who are disadvantaged by it (Hobden and Jones, 2008). The neo-neo beliefs on globalisation According to Marxist theorists, the globe has long been dominated by the single integrated economic and political substances – a global capitalist system – which has constantly incorporated all of humanity within its grasps. Within this system, all components have always been interdependent and interrelated. The increasing of multinational corporations surely does not signify any noticeable change in the structure of the modern capitalist system. Rather, they establish part of a long-term pattern towards the further integration of the global economy. The understanding offered by the Marxist theorists suggests that there isn’t anything natural or inevitable about a world order based on a global market. Rather than accepting the inevitability of the present order, the task facing us is to lay the constructions for a new way of organizing society – ‘a global society which is more just and more human than our own’. (Hobden and Jones, 2008) Most neo-realists believe that globalization has not changed the game of international politics much at all. States might require more expertise and resources to maintain their sovereignty, but neo-realists think most evidence suggests that states are increasing their spending over a wide variety of areas. Waltz (2000) recognizes that state remains the primary force in international relations and has spread its power to efficiently manage the processes of globalization. What neo-realists are most concerned with is the new security challenges demonstrated by globalization. Neo-realists are considering the uneven nature of economic globalization. Inequality in the international system may be the most significant security threat in the future. People without food are desperate to seek change, and often that will be a violent change. Economic globalization can also emphasize existing differences in societies, creating instability in strategic areas, thereby challenging world order. Another group of neo-realists would react that forces of globalization might challenge sovereignty. Nonetheless, states have not lost their authority and control. Yet, globalization has had a significant influence on domestic politics and the present power structures. (Lamy, 2008) References Brown, C. (2001) Understanding International Relations. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Duncan, W. R., Jancar-Webster, B. and Switky, B. (2006) World Politics in the 21st Century. London: Pearson Longman Hobden, S. and Jones, R. W. (2008) ‘Marxist theories of international relations’ in J. Baylis, S. Smith and P. Owens, The globalization of world politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 144-57. Jackson, R. and Sorensen, G. (2003) Introduction to International Relations: Theories and Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lamy, S. L. (2008) ‘Contemporary mainstream approaches: neo-realism and neo-liberalism’ in J. Baylis, S. Smith and P. Owens, The globalization of world politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 126-37. Mingst, K. (1999) Essentials of International Relations. London: Norton & Company Ltd. Reus-Smit, C. and Snidal, D. (2010) The Oxford Handbook of International relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Waltz, K. N. (1979) The ory of International Politics. London: McGraw-Hill. Waltz, K. N. (2000) ‘Globalization and American Power’, The National Interest, 59 (Spring): 46-56.

Relationship between educational requirements and the impact the Research Paper

Relationship between educational requirements and the impact the requirements have on policing at the state and local levels - Research Paper Example This has been criticized, especially due to the fact that it leaves out minority ethnic groups who have a lower chance of being educated. The other main question that has to be answered is the question of whether the requirement of law enforcement officers to have a degree increases their efficacy and professionalism in executing their job of policing. The requirement for law enforcement officers to have a higher education is a topic that cannot be easily exhausted. Definitely, there are some advantages in having educated officers. To begin with, research and literature seems to indicate that college educated officers are more likely to be more productive and also be better able to handle difficult situations that need judgment and discretion. For instance, as Doerner (2007) says, policemen with a higher education are more likely to handle sensitive situations in a better way than those with only a high school education. Secondly, the need to professionalize the profession of policing requires that the people be required to take up higher education. The only problem with this is that they are not necessarily needed to take up courses related to their work. This then brings in a problem because the definition of a professional is that he or she must take an education that related to her service. It might be better to ask; is it necessary to need law enforcement officers to be educated, to professionalize the trade? If so, what is meant by professionalizing? The truth, is, even as there is some evidence that college educated law enforcement officers are able to be more effective in executing their duties, this does not necessarily solve the issue of improving the trade. Dunham (2001) argues that police attitudes may be changed for the better by and education. However, he argues this does not solve all the issues. Making law enforcement to be professional would be done better if there were college cour ses specifically

Despite the criticisms often levelled at the Community institutions Essay

Despite the criticisms often levelled at the Community institutions and their powers to legislate, it should be remembered that ultimate power still lies with t - Essay Example The legal scheme said to be designed by the Treaty at the outset has been assessed as having shortfalls in its objective of ensuring that the EC law be properly applied by the Member States. Article 169 procedures as a legal instrument in fighting against all the failures to fulfill obligations accordingly is not appropriate. This implies the need to create additional means to enforce and supervise the EC law (Gil Ibà ¡Ãƒ ±ez, 1997). To date, the Community and its underlying legal order can only hold on if that legal order is safeguarded and complied with and the Community law directly applied, with its primacy over national law (ABC of community law, 2004). For all its imperfections, however, the European Community legal order is said to have greatly helped in solving the political, economic and social problems of the Member States (ABC of community law, 2004). But there is yet the tag and pull when it comes to location of power in most aspects. Different institutions cooperate and govern the European Union and the most important of these are the Council, the Commission, the European Parliament and the Court of Justice. (EU Law, n.d.). With its own set of legislation, the European Community also has the laws of its member states. EC Law is concerned with treaties, regulations, and decisions of the European Court of Justice (Ibid). Made within the part of the European Union called the European Communities (EC), the EC Law is only the legislation that is applicable, hence called EC law. Based on the Treaties, it is the fundamental rules of the EU serving as agreements between the Member States. EC law comprises four different fields, namely primary law (the Treaties and the accession treaties of the new Member States), secondary law (all existing legal acts accepted by institutions of the European Union), international agreements between the European Union and

Re write (data exchange) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Re write (data exchange) - Essay Example The aim of the project is to review the capabilities of XML-enable X3D standard for the representation of engineering design data including Product Structure, Bill of Materials and Product Coding and Classification among others within this context. This is one of two separate but interdependent projects proposed and the second one is listed below. The main objective of this study is to review the capabilities of XML-enable X3D standard for the representation of engineering design data including Product structure, Bill of Materials and Product Coding and Classification within the context of Collaborative Product Development among others. First of all, Right Neutral format was chosen for the data exchange after it was compared with the IGES and STEP format and it was selected because it provides the best version in comparison to the IGES format. After that, the researcher worked on the IGES (neutral) format and web-based 3D XML format and they were also compared for their effectiveness while doing share information between IGES and the web based approach. The Altan Machine Company`s Quick coups and Fork were designed using the Solid works and after that data results were presented in 3D XML and IGES format. The researcher compared the results between IGES and Web-Based 3D XML format after carrying the observations. In this study, secondary data was collected prior to the study for the purpose of analysing the findings in comparison to the data that already exists in this same field of study. Collection of secondary data greatly helped in gathering extensive information in an attempt to explore and establish a broader understanding about 3D XML and IGES format in designing engineering data which provided a solid understanding of the topic given that some studies have been done already on the same topic. As a point of departure, it should be noted that 3D XML is a lightweight and a standard XML-based

DecisionMaking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

DecisionMaking - Essay Example Generally, decision making consists of the following six steps (Glynn, Before taking the final decision, managers need to get an idea about the effectiveness of the course of action or remedy they intend to apply on a particular problem, so a post decision evaluation via feedback can be worth while. In the managerial decision making process, the management accountants play a decisive role although they neither indulge in making nor in implementing the final decision, the management accountant is held responsible for providing the information at each of the six stages mentioned above. Management is not concerned about how and from what procedures an accountant uses in his analysis and evaluation; eventually the main concern of the management is the information regarding the problems and on the basis of this information, management reaches on a decision (Steffan, 2008). Management accountant is responsible to elaborate the management that the data that is been taken is relevant to provide the information. Relevant data are the single most important ingredient in decision making (Drury, 2007). Relevant data usually consist of relevant cost and relevant revenue which must be considered by the accountants while choosing the alternative course of action; make sure only those cost and revenues will be incurred which are relevant to the decision making. BUDGETING: The budget is a quantitative expression of management objectives and a means of

Google's case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Google's case study - Essay Example The company gives permission to employees to spend 20% of their time to work on personal projects, which can lead to new ideas (Edelman & Eisenmann, 2011). The importance of given to innovation is partly due to the role it played in the birth and growth of Google. Second, teamwork and communication are also very important. According to the case study, employees are divided into small teams. Team members sit close to each other, which makes information sharing very easy. Finally, the philosophy of perfection is grounded in the company. A product has to be tested for a long time before being introduced to the market. Google’s culture has helped in fostering teamwork, inspiring creativity and facilitating quality products and services. The culture of teamwork has made it possible for employees to share information and discuss various issues. Effective communication and teamwork have contributed to the innovative nature of the Google workforce (Ogbor, 2009). The culture has created a workforce that believes in innovation. Google engineers are always working on something new. The culture explains the high number of products and services that are still being tested in the company before being released. Great compensation and benefits motivate programmers and other employees to work hard to achieve company goals and objectives. The potential drawbacks of Google’s culture is an increased competition among employees to the point it interferes with the quality of work. The other limitation of Google’s culture is the heavy costs incurred to maintain it. The hiring process can be too long, which can make talented individuals leave. The long hiring process can put the company at a disadvantage with its competitors (Yanadori & Marler, 2006). The founders of Google and CEO have played a significant role in the formulation of the company culture. The culture is based on the dreams of the two Google

Down East Spud Busters National Distribution Program Research Paper

Down East Spud Busters National Distribution Program - Research Paper Example Because the company wants to improve its sales and capture a large market, the sales associate will be expected to work hard towards convincing most business entities that can buy the products. The sales associates can have their operating centers in each region and should receive feedback from the clients concerning the products of sales services. The HR policies and procedures should be changed to incorporate the new strategy of distributing the products. The company expects to sell in several regions using sales associates. Policies should include restrictions on product storage, handling, and management of center stores. Procedures should guide the sales associate on how they will manage the regional centers and distribution of the products. The company should develop a portfolio indicating the skills experience and qualities needed in a sales associate to help it achieve its goals. This will guide its recruitment (Bateman & Snell, 2013). Industries that could use this model are; the agricultural industry, the automotive industry, and Food and beverage industry among others. An ice cream producer could use this model and get so many customers. The same applies to a baker. Some foodstuff however, cannot be distributed in this manner, the model can still be implemented is stores are constructed in specific regions like most coffee shops have done. Another example is the retail industry.

Buss low Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Buss low - Essay Example The case involved Apple and Samsung in argument of products manufactory. The jury found Samsung guilty by willfully infringing Apple patents. Apple requested to triple the compensation, but the lawyers defended the claim. Apple requested the court to prevent Samsung to ship products infringing Apple’s patents. The court decision favored Apple. Samsung penalty served as a deterrent effect to worn other companies trying to manufacture products similar to their competitor. The court ruling that Samsung should compensate Apple for damages was right, since Samsung had made profit from Apples products (Wingfield, p. 4). Apple did not make the products for their competitors to flagrantly copy but for delighting their customers. I strongly agree with the courts decision. Each company should use skills but not to copy other company’s product. The ruling served as a warning to Samsung and other companies trying to copy their competitor’s products. Nick Wingfield. Jury Awards $ 1 Billion to Apple in Samsung Patent Case. Viewed on August 24, 2012 from

Race Determining Music Preference Essay Example for Free

Race Determining Music Preference Essay Music in the United States is a reflection of the nation’s multi-ethnic population with regard to its diverse array of styles. The most famous of these genres include; rock n roll, country, rhythm blues, jazz, hip-hop. The developments of most of the genres of music began during the civil war period. During this time the roots of such popular forms like blues, gospel, jazz, as well as country took shape. In the early 20th century there forms of music emerged as the core of American popular music and later underwent evolution to such styles as rhythm and blues, rock and roll and hip-hop (Daniel Gilbert Perret, (2005). Music integrates South American social and cultural identity, entailing social class, race and ethnicity among many others. The link and co relationship between is perhaps the to potent of all the factors within the United States than any other. Race seems to the most potent determiner of musical mean within America. The evolution of the Afro American musical identity as a result of disparate sources form Africa as well as Europe has consistently been the main theme within the music domain and history in the United States. During the mid 1800s, the Afro American had developed a district folk tradition that was well-recognized and very wide spread. African American techniques, their instrumentation as well as images were integrated and became part of what was then known mainstream music. Via spirituals, slave songs as well as minstrel shows. Through jazz, rhythm and blues, and blues and later on through rock n roll, soul a swell as hip-hop. Even through all these genres were accepted and adapted by all races within the United States they were developed from an afro American styles as well as idioms before eventually setting to become very common in consumption as well as performance that had no racial boundary. Differently, country music was driven from the European and an African context as well as Hawaiian and Native American. The untied states due to her diverse culture and her propensity to taking in influences form across the globe and building characteristically new methods through which artists can culturally express themselves. Even though many aspects of the American aspects of the American music is traceable back to certain specific origins it is usually inherently difficult to put claim on any respective original culture as the source of any musical element, because of the even evolving American music through transplanting as well as techniques of hybridizations, instruments and genres (Blush, Steven (2001). Very distinctly American music stems form the cross-cultural hybridization through a very close interaction. For instance, during slavery mixed persons form various tribes in very closely enclosed living quarter resulted in a shared musical tradition that was done through an extended hybridization. The process which music was being transplanted between various cultures within the United States brought with it various implications. For example, the revival of folk during the mid 1900s appropriated the music of different village person, partially to enhance particular political causes. The use of Afro American techniques as well as images, instruments during performances by white Americans have been on the rise since the mid 1800s. The music industry in the United States has been very active with her attempts to make popular white performers of African American music due to their palatability to mainstream as well as middle class American. From this process such many stars like Benny Goodman, Eminem as well as Elvis Presley have emerged in various genres of music. The nature of folk music within the united is as varied as the nature of her multi-ethical culture. Generally, the Native Americans have each played their variety of folk music, which has basically been spiritual. In its development stage spirituals was basically expressions of religious faith, and was a common song by slaves on southern plantations. It however, spread out of the south in the late 1800s. Its diversification increased with emergence of fekleg in the early 1900s as well as the rise of the singing preachers from which the gospel type of music originated (Chase, Gilbert (2000). Blues on the other hand is conglomeration of African folk songs, shouts as well as field hollers. It emerged form the rural south during 1900-1910. It was characterized in its use of the blue scale with a flatted/in determinate third. The various ethnic communities that have migrated to the untied have managed to keep alive the folk traditions of the culture and usually providing a characteristically American styles with foreign flair. The European musical tradition was imported to the United States with the advent of the first colonialists. This classical traditional music is deeply rooted within the traditions of the European art, as well as concern music. Majorly of American tried to work entirely with their music centered on the European models until the 1800s. By early 1900s, many American composers started incorporating such disparate elements into their musical art, from the jazz and blues to the Native American music. Big corporations that produce in both small and large scale largely dominate the music industry in the untied states. Often, these companies do not appeal to large audiences, as such small companies have sprung up to fill the void left. They produce in various styles with ranging variety that appeal to very large audiences. These small firms are normally built on the foundation of a core fun base that may happen to be strategically located in one region. The largest make music industry is that centered on Latin music. This kind of music has greatly impacted on the popular American music and was a very essential component in the development of jazz music. In view of this it is sufficient to conclude that to a greater extent race has a bearing on the preference of the type of music one performs or listens to this is born out of the fact that part of a child’s development stage, the cognitive part begins to encode the mothers language from the womb until he or she reaches the external environment (Daniel G. 2005). Thus, even if there are many Americans who have crossed the racial lines as has music still the culture is a determinant the choice of music.

Learning Is A Continuous Process Education Essay

Learning Is A Continuous Process Education Essay It is said that Ignorance is Bliss. If that be the case, one may wonder why people seek knowledge. This is because Knowledge is Power. That is why everyone is in pursuit of knowledge. Acquiring / up gradation of knowledge is known as learning. Learning is a continuous cyclic process. It starts from what one knows. It goes towards what one wants to know. The cycle is as shown below [1] In the process of learning, one picks up from what others know and some times one learns from ones own experience. Many times the success in life comes through learning new skills, knowledge, capabilities and attitudes. If we narrow our concern to the success of learning process in educational institutions, the success cannot be measured as a simple parameter. The success may be seen immediately or it may be felt at a later date. Success may be felt by an individual or it may be felt by the society. In many societies, education is seen as cost center and not as profit center. Governments in the world spend huge sums of money to educate their population. Generally these investments are made currently with an eye on future generations of the society. All along lifetime of mankind, education and continuous up- gradation of knowledge have been contributing to development of society. In a broad sense the following parameters can form the basis of measuring the success of learning: Knowledge gained Skills up-gradation Decision making capability Attitudinal change Ability to shoulder responsibility Problem solving capability Judgmental capability II LEARNING PROCESS Many principles are used to accelerate learning process [2]. Learning style depends on students preferences, students information processing capability, personality, social interaction tendencies, cultural diversity in the learning place and instructional methods. It may be difficult to model learning process precisely. There is a lot of disagreement between the educators and psychologists in the understanding of learning process. However, they agree that learning can be explained by the combination of two approaches namely, behaviorism and cognitive theory. Some of the principles that affect learning are readiness, exercise, effect, primacy, intensity, recency and perception. The factors that affect perception are physical organism, basic need, goals and values, self concept, time and opportunity and element of threat. There are four levels of learning namely, Rote learning, understanding, application and correlation. Higher levels of learning take place in cognitive domain, affecti ve domain and psychomotor domain. However, any knowledge / skill learnt are liable to be forgotten if not used regularly. There are methods for retention of what is learnt. The methods are praise, recall by association, favorable attitudes, meaningful repetition and leaning with all senses. Learning or acquiring of knowledge, skill etc are aimed at enhancing a persons decision making capability, problem solving ability, judgmental capabilities, ability to shoulder responsibilities and above all confidence of that person. Since learning is an important aspect of students lives, it becomes all the more important for us (teachers) to concentrate on different learning processes and various teaching methods that can bring about the required change in the students for maximum benefits. From the understanding of learning process, we understand that teaching involves transfer of knowledge, belief, skill, understanding, experience, values and preferences from the teacher to the taught. While undertaking any teaching assignment, the teacher is interested in knowing he sure methods of success in achieving the required goal of transfer of knowledge etc. There is no specific fool-proof method for available for the same. The success depends on the subject taught and methods employed. If one method has failed, the teacher must find another that can facilitate transfer of maximum information. In short, teaching is not considered to be a science and it is recognized as an Art. III PEDAGOGIES Different pedagogies are used for teaching different subjects. The well known, time tested standard and traditional pedagogies are chalk and talk, demonstration, tutorials, experiments and questions. But it has been found that these pedagogies fall short of expectations. So, there have been efforts to identify more effective novel strategies for teaching. We shall discuss some of the novel pedagogies and some of e-learning methods. Recent pedagogies include Role play, learn while you play, Learn through games, promoting Lateral thinking, Discovery learning, Cooperative learning, Case studies and Peer teaching. More recent methods are e-learning and m-learning pedagogies. We shall discuss each of these in detail. 3.1 Role Play Role play as a pedagogy has been in use for some time now [3]. It has been recognized as an effective learning tool especially for development of attitudinal skills. It exposes the participants to different views / perspectives for the same situation. All the participants may have gone through the theory of situations and how to react to such situations. However, in practice, one may find himself / herself wanting. Role play lets the participants go through the experience and to understand what different people may think / do at the same situation. In a role play a scenario is explained through a brief given to set of players. Each player may have been given different responsibilities and with different goals / objectives. There may be roles with conflicting interests as in the real life scenario. As the players play out the scenario, the possible obstacles in any ones plan are unfolded. Each one learns about the others ideas and each player gains more insight in to real life situati on. The result is the rich experience gained by all. 3.2 Learn while you play This pedagogy is use in use since kindergarten scheme of education is in vogue. This pedagogy is used mainly to help children get out of their homesickness in to a system of education. The system is use from 19 Century [4]. The pedagogy is useful in making even the reluctant child to join his / her friends in learning the basics of language / numbers. It has been found to be very effective across large societies. One of the reasons for this pedagogy to be successful is that it makes learning an interesting activity. It can possibly be beneficial if the same pedagogy is extended o higher learning also, specifically for learning skills. 3.3 Learn through games This pedagogy is very much useful for learning management skills. This is practiced in many International Schools of management [5,6]. It was started in 1958. It seeks to initiate reactions (management decisions) from students in a simulated environment. The game(s) can be played by a group of students across the table or it can be played over the Internet. Assisted learning is possible with the teacher providing necessary inputs so the student makes correct decisions. A good example is TOC V6 that can be played over the Internet [7]. The game lets the students to create a company, operate railway lines, plan routes and tariffs, plan advertisement and management strategies based on simulated results. In this game, the player is expected to make management decisions in the spheres of personnel, business planning, marketing and financial management. 3.4 Lateral Thinking The term Lateral Thinking was invented in the year 1967 by Edward De Bono [8]. It lets the students to think out of the box. The practice has been found to be useful in many situations. The website by the author is very useful in understanding the full capabilities of the practice of lateral thinking. In any situation, one can find the way out by simply thinking differently. As an approach, it is beneficial for all students to be encouraged in the art of lateral thinking as they are likely to face different problems than the ones for which they are prepared now. Good example of lateral thinking is the game of crossword. It tries to find an answer to a seemingly difficult statement. 3.5 Discovery Learning It is a good tool to let the students learn new concepts simply by discovering them. It is originally proposed by Jerome Bruner [9]. Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves. This pedagogy allows knowledge to be constructed by the students themselves. In this method, the learner discovers the facts from their past experience and existing knowledge [10]. David Kolb has suggested an experimental learning model in 1984 [11] as shown below. Seymour Papert, a Professor from MIT has said You cant teach people everything they need to know. The best you can do is position them where they can find what they need to know when they need to know it [12]. Learning orientations are found to happen in four different domains, namely, Behavior, cognitive, humanist and social domains. Out of these, cognition and recognition are mental processes that get sharpened by learning. Cognition is a complicated process that extends beyond what one sees or hears or smells. It provides understanding and association. For example, when we hear background music, we are able to identify the song and also any event / memory associated with it. 3.6 Case studies In this pedagogy, a single person or a group of persons study a situation or case in the real world. That is, they study a real time problem. It is expected that the person or group is involved in extensive research about the problem. Case studies are very helpful in the fields of Business or medicine. Case studies are useful in bringing out the correlations between events. Many times, case studies are also useful in suggesting suitable ways out of any situation. It helps the participants to weigh the pros and cons of different approaches towards the solution to any problem on hand. The benefits of this pedagogy and the approaches are many [13]. Free samples of case studies are also available [14, 15, 16, 17, and 18]. 3.7 Peer Teaching This has been found to be very effective in teaching students with mixed capabilities. This strategy exploits the advent of ICT (Information Communication Technology) in the field of education. In an UNESCO study conducted at Malaysia, it has been found that this pedagogy is very helpful for students in learning [19]. This strategy has been identified as hands On, Heads On, Hearts On strategy. There are many benefits of this strategy as this makes it possible for the learning to continue beyond the classroom and the examinations. It encourages collaboration among the students. But it must be borne in mind that a good student may not always be a good teacher. Main reason for this strategy to be effective is that we tend to remember [20]: 10% of what we hear 15% of what we see 20% of what we hear and see 60% of what we do 80% of what is done actively with reflection; 90% of what we teach others IV RECENT TRENDS Recent pedagogies are e-learning and m-learning using more of ICT. These strategies are more suited for teaching knowledge or concepts. However, for teaching skills, ones personal experience is the best teacher. For example, one cannot learn to swim from any amount of conceptual teaching from any one. One can learn swimming simply by jumping in to a water body and picking up the nuances of swimming. An analysis of e-learning initiatives of Colleges of Technology shows that majority of the staff members here use prepared study material and starting and maintaining discussion forum in websites. Some of the staff also uses power point presentations for transferring knowledge. However, there are some more e-learning pedagogies that can be made use of. We shall discuss them in detail. 4.1 Animation Animation uses the language of pictures. It is easy to convey a concept through an image than through verbose statements. Image captures the attention of viewers better than the ability of a lecturer to capture the attention of the listener. There are many 2D or 3D animation pictures available for teaching different subjects. It is possible to make the students understand certain time-related concepts better with animation than by regular classroom lecture. Many organizations are involved in development of animation pictures for teaching different subjects. 4.2 Simulation Software Many times, especially in design, it may not be possible to build a particular product and then test it. It may be costly and there may be other problems. So, it becomes advantageous if we can simulate a design and test the same in simulation. More over, a product / design that may give certain results under certain conditions, may give varied results under different conditions. While it may be possible to calculate / extrapolate the current situation, simulation helps the person to find the result without having to create the conditions physically. There are soft wares available for simulating various parameters and finding the results. The student can test his / her design under different conditions. Many simulation packages are available for teaching different subjects. 4.3 Video Lectures This is another method where the student is made to listen to the lectures by an eminent person in a field. The lectures by a reputed person are recorded and are available as video lectures. There are many such lectures available in the Internet [21]. The well known lecture series from Professors of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) or Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) are available for free down load on any technical subject. These lectures are expected to offer to the student the much needed variety of view on the subject. It must be understood such lectures, though available, are not suited for developing practical skills. 4.4 Audio- visual (AV) lectures These are slightly different from the video lectures. These are useful with additional voice-over. That is, there are practical demonstrations with supporting voice -over instructions. The additional instructions are very helpful in enhancing the understanding of the subject. There are many available, mainly for learning different languages. However, there are a series of AV volumes available for Physical Exercises by Jane Fonda. 4.5 Screen casting and POD casting Some times screencasting helps easy understanding of some subjects [22]. A screen cast is the capture of the computer screen along with accompanying audio (of the teacher) and distributed. It can be viewed through the LAN in screen cast or it can be distributed through mobile network in POD cast. It can be considered to be representation of computer screen over a period of time. It captures changes in the screen for each action. The student, even if he / she has not been attentive in the class to appreciate all the minute points can learn them leisurely at home at a later time. 4.6 Virtual Learning Virtual Reality is the latest technique. It allows the user to experience a simulated Virtual environment in the computer. It calls for use of many gadgets associated with imaginary environments. It helps the student to gain the experience of any situation without having to go through the rigmarole of creating the environment. This is driven by stringent computing power requirements. V CONCLUSION We have considered many pedagogies that can be used in your classroom. After studying all these options, one may wonder if the pedagogy used by that person is the best one. However, it must be borne in mind that a particular pedagogy may be well suited for teaching a particular subject. The same pedagogy may not suit well for teaching other subject. The suitability of the pedagogy is dependent on the following parameters: The subject taught Students capability to understand Students interest to learn Nuances involved in learning that subject The learning environment Compulsion / incentives in learning that subject Language proficiency of teacher and taught We have considered different pedagogies and their relative merits. Only after practice of each of them one can come to a conclusion if it is well suited for any subject. VI References http://www.in-corporate.eu/images/diagrams/learning-process.gif http://www.dynamicflight.com/ Blanter A Blanter , Allee (1997) Applications in Education In the Art of play : Helping Adults reclaim imagination and spontaneity Philadelphia: Bruner/Mazel Taylor Francis http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten sbaweb.wayne.edu/~absel/bkl/vol17/17ck.pdf http://www.cmu.edu/corporate/news/2007/features/mgmt%20game.shtml Carnegie Mellon University http://tocgame.sr1.fi/ www.edwdebono.com/debono/lateral.htm Bruner, J.S. (1967). On knowing: Essays for the left hand. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html Kolb DA 1984. Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. http://www.papert.org/ http://www.studygs.net/casestudy.htm www.Caseplace.org www.intel.com/business/casestudies/all/index.html http://www.thetimes100.co.uk/company_list.php http://www.schroeder-inc.com/casestudy.html http://ucs.ist.psu.edu/default.asp Tan Tee Hwa, Student Peer Teaching Strategy, Malaysia, UNESCO, Bangkok (2009) ISBN 978-92-9223-251-1 (Print version), ISBN 978-92-9223-252-8 (Electronic version) http://ceupromed.ucol.mx/sptss/introduction.htm www.youtube.com www.educause.edu/eli

Contrasting Adam and Eve and Old Man and Old Woman Essay -- Comparison

Contrasting Adam and Eve and Old Man and Old Woman  Ã‚        Ã‚   Chewing Blackbones’ Indian myth entitled "Old Man and Old Woman" is so similar to the well-known creation story of "Adam and Eve" from the Christian Bible that some readers see them as essentially the same. I do not, and a close examination reveals that the two stories differ in very important ways. The Indian myth "Old Man and Old Woman" begins, "Long, long ago, there were only two persons in the world: Old Man and Old Woman" (538). In the beginning of Christian creation story, the two characters, Adam and Eve, are also the only two people in the world. The characteristic that I found that shows a difference between the openings of the stories is the presence of God in "Adam and Eve." I noticed that in Chewing Blackbones’ Indian version there is no third party. The Indian myth does not explain how Old Man and Old Woman were created; it just states there were two people in the world, Old Man and Old Woman. The actual creation processes in both stories seem similar, yet they are actually very different from each ...

open fracture of the radius :: essays research papers

Injury report: Open fracture of the Radius. A triathlon involves swimming, running and then biking a set track. A triathlete fell from his bike during training, due to the wet road. He landed awkwardly on his bike. His Radius was broken because he landed with his arm on the handle bars of the bike. The force at which he landed on the handle bars caused his Radius to break and pierce the skin. A cracked bone is called a fracture. Fractures are most likely to occur in the limb bones. (Radius and Ulna; Tibia and Fibula) Fractures are named according to the certain features which separate the different types of fracture. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Closed fracture. The bone is broken but the overlying skin surface is not damaged. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Open fracture. The broken ends of the bone have pierced the surface of the skin. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Compound fracture. The fractured bone has caused other injuries, e.g. the rib may have penetrated the lung. The triathlete has an open fracture of the Radius. (Image 1) As can be seen in the above picture the Radius is a bone in the lower arm, on the same side of the arm as the thumb. As people when falling-outstretch their arms to break their fall-the radius may received several quite heavy blows. This may weaken the joints around the radius and may cause it to dislocate. The triathlete has landed on the side of his radius, and the radius has broken in half and has pierced the skin. This leaves the body vulnerable to infection and obviously isn’t pleasant for the triathlete. Below is an image of the femur and on it is labeled the different types of bone and where they may be found. The white hard bone on the outside is called the compact bone. On the inside of the shaft is the bone marrow. Inside the epipysis is the spongy bone. Surrounding the ends of the bone is cartilage which eases movement between bones. Osteo=Bone. The bone marrow produces red and white blood cells.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chondrin=Cartilage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Image 2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Above is a diagram of the structure of a mature bone. It shows what each different part of the bone looks like under a microscope, and where those parts of bone are found. The top of this bone is called the head ( this also applies to the radius) The long, thin part of the bone that gives the bone its length is called the shaft Immediate first aid†¦ When bones are broken (The following must be done in a way that would prevent further injury) the immediate first aid is to†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.

Radio Frequency Barcodes :: Technology Essays

Radio Frequency Barcodes History Traditionally, companies have used standard paper barcodes in conjunction with information databases to track inventory and monitor product movement. By tracking incoming and outgoing product, barcodes form an easy means of maximizing the overall efficiency of a business. Barcodes do however have certain limitations. Barcode scanning is dependent on the orientation of the barcode with the horizontal laser scanner and therefore the overall speed of the process becomes a function of the speed at which the individual can orient and then scan. This minor limitation may be a soon be resolved as Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) technology maximizes the potential for efficient and quick product management in the form of electronic barcodes. Radio-Frequency Identification is not a new technology but has become realistic through recent advancements. Key Players A small handful of companies inside and outside the United States are developing this new technology. A company called RF-ID.Com specializes in electronic barcodes and transponders for the management of everything from automobiles to cattle, beer kegs, and packages. While another, RF Ideas Inc. has teamed up with such companies as Motorola and Microsoft to manufacture a form of proximity activated identification or AIR ID as a form of added security for Windows NT systems. These companies and others have been testing RF-ID technology throughout Europe for quite some time in product test runs. Technology Different companies offer a variety of products as solutions to different customer needs. "The core of any RF-ID system is the ‘Tag’ or ‘Transponder’ which can be attached to or embedded within objects." (1) RF-ID’s come in all shapes and sizes, from little glass transponder capsules to being placed in between layers of paper or plastic to form inexpensive stickers for disposable use. But all of the Radio-Frequency Identification technology relies on the same principle, wireless communication between a RF-ID or transponder and the RF Module of a reader. "The data collected from an RF-ID can either be sent directly to a host computer through standard interfaces, or it can be stored in a portable reader and later uploaded to the computer for data processing." (1) When a transponder comes within range of a reader it uses energy collected from a RF wave that is stored in a capacitor to broadcast its own answering message which is received by the reader. (1) Many of the new transponders feature read/write updating so that information can be read and uploaded on the fly.

Purchasing and Supply Organization Department

I contacted a consultant for Mansell Ltd. and a great deal of information was gathered and analyzed. The following advice would be given for ways of improving their purchasing and supply organization. Currently, Mansell Ltd. Operates from six sites and has a central purchasing and stock control department in the North of England. Upon an analysis of the company, it has been found that orders for production materials have been placed with over 6000 different companies during the last four years. There are many benefits to be gained from buying from a smaller number of suppliers. The purchasing and supply department would be better organized and thus more efficient if less supply companies were used. Purchasing supplies from fewer companies would result in better pricing of supplies. For example, if the company purchased the same items from several different companies, it is probably getting charged more. Purchasing the same item from only one company will result in savings for the number of items bought because many companies give a discount for large quantities of items purchased. When using the same companies for purchasing, a rapport between the two is possible. When a supplier knows that his/her products will be needed by a certain company, he/she will be more likely to have those products more readily available. For example, if the seller knows that the buyer needs a thousand items each week, the seller will make sure that those items are in stock and will save them for the purchaser instead of selling them to another company. The more sellers, the more confusion there will be. Even with computer technology, having so many sellers presents a logistical problem. A purchasing and supply organization should follow certain business fundamentals. Low cost, quality, and timeless are fundamental to the business. Planning is required. Buying from fewer companies results in fewer persons to deal with. Six thousand suppliers are a large number to be dealing with. Those are far too many suppliers involved. Keeping up with that great a number of suppliers would keep several people in the purchasing department busy. In order to become more efficient and use fewer numbers of man-hours, using fewer suppliers is the answer. Diversity is good in some instances. However, the purchasing and supply organization is not one of them. In fact, diversity only caused unnecessary confusion, and too many chances for problems. Purchasing is one of the vital parts of any company. The products acquired enable the business to create or generate its product. There are a diverse number of potential suppliers, as evidenced by the 6,000 suppliers that have been utilized in the past. This number makes purchasing a chore instead of an easy adventure. The purchasing department needs as few challenges as possible. Eliminating a number of suppliers cuts down on the challenge they pose. With insight into the management of the purchasing and supply department's inner workings, many of the sellers can be eliminated. It would not be prudent to reduce the number to a handful of suppliers, what with the market what it is, but there is certainly no need for a great number of suppliers. Purchasers and buyers have a specific function. â€Å"Purchasers and buyers seek to obtain the highest quality merchandise at the lowest possible purchase cost for their employers. (In general, purchasers buy goods and services for the use of their company or organization whereas buyers buy items for resale.) They determine which commodities or services are best, choose the suppliers of the product or service, negotiate the lowest price, and award contracts that ensure the correct amount of the product or service is received at the appropriate time. In order to accomplish these tasks successfully, purchasers and buyers study sales records and inventory levels of current stock, identify foreign and domestic suppliers, and keep abreast of changes affecting both the supply of and demand for products and materials for which they are responsible† (Anonymous, 1998, PG). The way to reduce the number of suppliers would be as follows. An analysis of past purchases is required. Decide which companies have the best products for the lowest price. This is not the only factor to consider, however. Other issues, such as ability to get the product to Mansell Ltd. in a timely fashion is also important. Lower prices do not matter if the product does not get there when it is According to Steele and Court (1996), the understanding of purchasing is critical to a company's long-term ability to profit, and its survival as a company. Understanding of purchasing includes the knowledge of how best to buy resources. This includes the sellers from whom the product is purchased as well as the amount of supplies that are purchased and when they are purchased (Steele & Court, 1996). Check out the competition. Ask for samples. Make sure that the seller can deliver when he/she says he/she will, the amount of product that was agreed upon, and at or below the agreed upon cost. Proper training for the purchasing staff is vital. Regular meetings must be held. All purchasers must know the guidelines of the company. Training programs that teach the purchasers about the best manner in which to perform their jobs is important. A typical training program should include instruction by trained personnel that covers specified goals and only lasts for a day or two. Not a great deal of time should be taken up with training, but the training is vital. The proper changes must be implemented as soon as it is possible. Negotiation with potential suppliers is important. Having a good rapport between the buyer and the seller is also important. The buyer should travel to the prospective seller's company and see what the company has to offer. One-on-one meetings are still important. By getting out there and getting to know the seller, the buyer will become more than a faceless person in the North of England. He/she becomes a ‘real' person. Making acquaintances is important for business. A bond should be created between the buyer and the seller. Together the two can have a working relationship that is beneficial to the both of them. According to Killen and Kamauff (1995), purchasing is a planning process. The purchaser should determine both short and long-term needs for business operation. The purchasing function must be controlled. By doing this, its conformance to expectation levels can be ensured. Evaluations are important on a cyclic basis (Killen; Kamauff, 1995). The buyer should be able to negotiate with the seller. Prospective sellers should be able to give better prices for larger quantities. This allows the purchaser to make better decisions. The seller should be able to meet the needs of the buyer. If he/she does not, then that is not the company to deal with. The buyer does not need added stress; he/she needs products as they are required. When a seller is given the lion's share of purchases, he/she can more readily fill the orders. A purchaser must have certain tactics. Those tactics include such items as vulnerability management, supply positioning, and suppliers' preferences. He/she must be able to work with others. Communication is vital for the purchaser. Teamwork is a necessary element of purchasing. Constant reevaluation is necessary (Steele & Court, 1996). According to Malley (1998), the Internet is a viable tool for purchasing departments. Barbara Chilson is the vice president and general manager of Internet commerce for her company, which is W. W. Grainger. In Chilson's opinion, â€Å"the advent of purchasing supplies electronically, increasingly referred to as paperless purchasing, can be attributed to a variety of factors and emerging technology† (Malley, 1998). Purchasing is vital to Mansell Ltd. The purchasing department must streamline and make changes in order to make Mansell Ltd. be as profitable as possible. Having too many suppliers results in chaos. This can be resolved by reducing the number of suppliers. Technology is another important consideration. Purchasing of some items can be done online, which saves time and money.

Man Vs. Woman

Our society is full of stereotypes concerning the traits of behavior â€Å"typical† for males and females.   According to some of these women talk more than men, and shop longer than men.   On the other hand, men are, for example, more logical than women. No matter what the stereotype is, the common characteristic for all stereotypes is that they put woman in a certain way lower, make her a weaker human being than man. Some stereotypes – be it women’s likeness for shopping, men getting better jobs, or females playing team sports – are offensive and even discriminating.   However, in the last couple of decades women around the world at different points in time have begun a campaign fighting for the equality of their rights.   Successful results of such campaigns not only provided women with some additional rights; these results are also leading to a need for a change of some stereotypes, including, in particular, shopping, career and sports. Among the most popular ones is a stereotype that women like shopping more than men.   It is a common thought that for women shopping is like a therapy, it is a necessary fun and part of female’s nature to like to shop – or so it is believed to be.   On the other hand, according to this stereotype, men perceive shopping as a waste of time, which is not a fun, but simply a necessary part of life:   you have to, for example, wear cloth, so you have to shop for them.   For men this means coming into the mall and going straight to buy what is needed without spending many hours walking around, looking and choosing. Such is a common believe. However, it seems to me that men are starting to spend more and more time shopping, while women – once more of them spend more time working on their careers – are starting to perceive shopping as a â€Å"must† and not as â€Å"fun†.   A good example would be my friends – Alex and Laura – who have been dating for more than a year by now.   This couple spends most of their free time together, yet there is one thing they simply cannot do together: shopping. The reason is that Alex needs much more time and is much pickier when he shops, while Laura buys cloth when she needs them. Among our friends it is a common joke that if Laura is out without Alex that means he is shopping.   It should be noted that many men, including my friend, sincerely enjoy the process of shopping; they find it entertaining to go from one department to another, try on different models to find something that will make them look really good. Does not that sound like a â€Å"common† female logic? Also, I have heard many stories, especially from married couples, about husbands who not only like to go shopping with their wives, but actually like to choose the clothes for them, or, at least, to comment and give advice as to what dress and shoes to buy.   Thus, it seems to me that women’s likeness for shopping is really a stereotype that needs to change, and in reality men do shopping in the same way, if not even more seriously. Another area full of stereotypes is the one related to careers and men holding better-paid and higher status positions in almost any of the professional fields.   There are actually several stereotypes tight into this.   The first one is – women are more family oriented and, thus, they cannot be truly devoted to work.   Another common belief is that men are more logical, and, thus, better decision makers, whereas women have more chances to be led away by their emotions rather than brains. These two stereotypes combined together are enough to explain the reasons behind a tendency for men to get better jobs.   However, my experience shows that in real life there are many deviations from above stated beliefs.   First of all, there are many men who worry about their families as much as women do, or, I can say that I know many homes where husbands and wives are equally concerned with their family.   Best example to give is my own home.   Looking back at my childhood in no way can I say that it was only my mother who brought me up.   With both parents working full-time I was getting equal attention from both of them as a kid, and even more attention from my dad as I was getting older. As to men getting higher ranking or better paid positions in business world, it is common knowledge that this tendency is gradually changing.   There have been a number of movements of women fighting for equal rights, which have achieved significant progress.   Today more and more women are building their careers in a competitive business world, and some of them are trying to combine it with family life.   On the other hand, it is not uncommon to meet a family where a wife is making money and a husband is taking care of kids and home, and, thus, the stereotype is already changing. One other area often perceived as â€Å"male’s territory† is that of sports, especially, team sports.   This summer a friend of mine went to soccer European league championship in Spain – Euro-2004.   This was a huge event with people coming from all over the world, lots of expensive advertisement and media from every European country.   Tickets were sold out months in advance.   In Europe this championship in its popularity is, probably, equal to the Olympics, if not exceeding it. There is no need to mention that playing on the field were men, and not women.   Of course, female soccer also exists, but if you ask me, I cannot name one single team or one single professional female soccer player.   Even though I have a girl-friend who spends hours kicking the ball on the field – with other girls or with guys, does not matter – in no way can I personally imagine for female soccer to be as popular as male soccer is.   For me it is just not a female sport and I do not think it will change in the nearest future. Therefore, some stereotypes regarding man and woman are on the threshold of change, while others will remain as they are.   I personally am convinced that in our days – with feminist activists and homosexual minorities constantly fighting for their rights – man-woman stereotypes are actually changing, and shopping, career-building and sports are just some examples of this tendency. Many of existing stereotypes are already perceived as a joke (women are statistically acknowledged to be better drivers, yet every men driver can tell you a joke about a woman’s driving), but others are rooted deeply in our society.   Here it should be noted that change of a stereotype does not mean simply stating that there are evidences of a certain stereotype being false. A change of stereotype requires a change of people’s mentality, their perception of a certain issue related to either men’s or women’s behavior.   Once this is realized it becomes clear that in order for a certain belief to transform, a generation or more of human’s life may be needed, and while majority is already realizing the need for a change of some stereotypes, the change itself will take us some time.

Cyber crime Essay

In the 21st century, with the improvements in technology and science new concepts are integrated in our lives. Cyber crime is among those concepts that did not previously exist 15-20 years ago. Back In the old day’s only conventional crime was discussed, which refers to those traditional, illegal behaviors that most people think of as crime. In today’s one has to be careful not only against conventional crime but also cyber crime as it is the latest and the most complicated problem in the new century. Cyber crime consists of all criminal actions against communication devices in a network such as Internet, telephone lines or mobile networks. Cyber crime can be observed among people at various age groups as it is easier to commit compared to other types of crime like murder, kidnapping or human trafficking. According to, (Cybercrime.gov, 2009,para8) can divide cyber criminals into four groups. This division may be classified under what they have in their mind. These group s are, children and adolescents between the age group of 6 – 18 years, organized hackers, professional hackers, crackers and discontented employees. Cyber crimes can be divided into 11 groups and each of them is different. Those are unauthorized access to computer systems or networks (hacking), theft of information contained in electronic form, email bombing, data diddling, salami attacks, denial of service attack, virus and worm attacks, logic bombs, Trojan attacks, internet time thefts and web jacking. International estimates announce that cybercrime costs approximately $50 billion annually. Cyber crime costs the United States more than $5 billion per year. According to Michigan State University Library, in England, cybercrime is estimated to cost approximately 250 million pounds or $417.7 million annually. Looking at these figures it can be said that cyber crime is a concept that should be reviewed carefully taking different aspects of it into consideration like the causes, victims and statutory provisions. Still there are so many countries that have not updated their laws against cyber crime. The lack of strong regulations ma kes it nearly impossible to arrest cyber criminals in those countries. In order to diminish cyber crime all organizations and governments should cooperate, as it has no boundaries. Firstly, it is important to know why people commit cyber crime and what they have in their minds, as it is not possible to resolve a problem without knowing its real cause. According to(Cybercrime.gov, 2009,para8) Children and adolescents between the age  group of 6 – 18 years are committing cyber crimes because of exploring new things, curiosity and to be outstanding amongst other children in their group. Younger people are more motivated to learn and try new ideas, which make them bolder. As they also have less life experience they are more prone to cyber crime. Another group consists of organized hackers who are the most dangerous ones. They are organized and ordered properly to make a move. According to the analysis conducted by the institute for security technology studies at Dartmouth college, the reason is generally political and these hackers may deface elect ronic information sites all over the world to spread disinformation and propaganda. Pakistani hackers can be given as an example who are the most skilled and qualified hackers in the world. Their main target is the Indian government sites but also NASA and Microsoft sites are also being attacked by them often. The third group is made up of professional hackers, who are only after money. They crack or steal information for their customers. Generally competitor companies hire them to get information about their rivals. The final group consists of discontented employees, which includes people who have been fired from their job and want to take revenge from their employers. As a result it can be stated that the authorities should approach cyber crime from various angles as each criminal group has different motives. The victim of crime is another aspect that has critical importance as the impacts of cyber crime and the damage it creates depends on the target subject. Although authorities in developing countries do not agree with this argument and pay no attention to the issue, by taking customized precautions to protect specific victim group’s cyber crime can be avoided before it takes place. This shows that only developing countries give importance to the matter, which makes the problem more serious. The classification of subjects of cyber crime is as follows: individuals, organizations, society at large and nation s. At the individual level cyber crime can be against a person or personal property. According to(Cybercrime.gov, 2009,para9), this can take several forms as harassment via e-mails, cheating & fraud, defamation, transmitting viruses, IPR crimes etc†¦For example to protect individuals more secure operating systems can be used instead of stand-alone anti-virus programs. As operating systems are not secure enough to provide protection against cyber attacks people have to pay for anti-virus programs. When organizations are taken  into consideration firms, companies, foundations or even governments can be the victims. The most common methods are unauthorized control/access over computer system, possession of unauthorized information, distribution of pirated software and cyber terrorism against a government organization. Organization wide trainings can be a solution for companies or institutions as people tend to be more precautious when they know about the potential threats and fear f rom losing their jobs. Some government organizations and private companies in developed countries use training as a tool to stop cyber crime. The most signification damage is given to the society at large as more people are affected by the results of cyber crime. Pornography is one significant example, which may take several forms including child harassment. Uncontrolled websites with harmful material have negative impact on young people and especially adolescents who are easily brainwashed. This affects moral values of the society, increases the rate of conventional crime and creates an insecure environment for people. Trafficking is another example of cyber crime where masses can feel the damage. Materials that cannot be explicitly sold by other means are traded on the Internet, which can include illegal items. Financial crimes, forgery and online gambling are other examples of cyber crime that have impacts both on individuals and the general public. Authorities should carefully examine these different groups, which are open to cyber crime and take measures specifically to protect them. Considering all the negative impacts it is becoming necessary to enforce legal sanctions on people or organizations that commit cyber crime. The most important step is to adopt legislations that define cyber crime, regulate and control the activities in cyber world in an effective way. Although certain governments do not view the problem seriously, developed countries like the U.S. have established mechanisms like Computer Crime and International Property Section (http://www.cybercrime.gov/) to take fast action against cyber crime. The Model Law on Electronic Commerce adopted by the United Nations Commission on Trade Law is an example to statutory provisions, which was followed by the Information Technology Act. The Information Technology Act deals with various types of cyber crimes like unauthorized downloading, virus attacks, disruption, denial of access, interference with the service availed by a person, hacking and tampering with computer source documents. According to the Information Technology Act,  the measures against cyber crime may include imprisonment up to 2-3 years to 10 years. According to(Cybercrime.gov, 2009,para3), the following are criticisms against Information Technology Act (ITA). First of all, the ITA does not serve the desired purpose and only deals with e-commerce. Additionally it does not deal with issues like cyber harassment, cyber nuisance etc which can have harmful effects. Another weakness of the ITA is that it is not comprehensive or exhaustive at the same time the definitions a re not clear enough. There should be a uniform law in the world against cyber crime it is a worldwide issue. Along with other issues, universal jurisdiction is also a very important aspect of the problem as cyber crime is a universal concept. Although some countries do not view the problem as a global one, provisions enforced in other countries should be accepted. As mentioned before, the International Technology Act focuses on e-commerce and does not deal with other types of cyber crimes. As a result it is necessary to raise a cyber army like Cyber Crime Investigation Cell of the Central Bureau of Investigation, which deals with various forms of cyber crime. In developing countries like Turkey the laws against cyber crimes are not very effective although some authorities believe that the necessary action is taken. As relevant measures are not implemented by the Turkish Government the problem is getting worse everyday. For example child porn is a very serious problem, which cannot be stopped without serious action. During the last months several child porn cases were reported by the TV channels in Turkey. Another example is internet fraud which is very common in Turkey. Turkish people are not willing to use internet banking because they are afraid of fraud. As Turkish laws are not effective enough these problems are not resolved. Instead of dealing with these serious issues Turkish authorities put a ban on websites like Youtube. In order to avoid cyber crime relevant legal measures should be taken through international cooperation. It is also important to build a control mechanism and develop a uniform law against it. Although it is not possible to totally stop cyber crime there are steps that can be taken by countries and international organizations like the United Nations. Another important thing is to educate people about the cyber risks and tell them what their rights are. If people are informed about the actions they can take against cyber crime the problem can be solved. To reduce the level of cyber crime it is necessary to have a strong legal mechanism worldwide. REFERENCES criminal justice(2008) retrieved from http://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/crimjust/cybercri.htm Cyber life and coping with identity theft (2010) retrieved from –http://www.naavi.org/pati/pati_cybercrimes_dec03.htm cybertech crimes of the 21st century retrieved from- http://digitaloman.blogspot.com/2006/10/cyber-crime-age-no-bar.html Witt, J (2011). Soc.2011 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 McGraw Hill Database: EBSCO Publishing Citations government’s hold on cyber bullies retrieved from http://www.cybercrime.gov/ Web Accessibility at Academic Libraries: Standards, Legislation, and Enforcement,Library Hi Tech); 2007 Vol. 24 Issue 4, p494-508, 15p. Document Type: article; (AN LHT.BD.DID.PROVIDENTI.WAALSL) [Citation Record]

Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own

EXPLAIN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS WITH EXAMPLE OF YOUR OWN. Introduction:- Decision making is an integral part of the most of the top manager's duties. Not even a single day passes without taking decisions particularly in modern organisations. Hence, management and decision ­ making are considered as inseparable. In fact, whatever a manager does, he can do it only by taking some decision. All matters related to planning, organization, staffing, directing and controlling are engrossed in decision making process. That is why it is aptly pointed out that management is essentially a decision-making process.The survival and future success of any enterprise is directly related to the ability to take timely and appropriate decision by the executives. Thus decision-making is said to be the heart of management. Lot of planning exercise is to be initiated by the manager before taking any viable decision. The manager has to carefully plan and decide what to do or what not to do. Wrong decis ions quite often are proved to be either costly or futile. To prevent such losses, decision-making process remains to be the core are in all planned activities of the modern corporations. The selection from among alternatives of a course of action†, according to this definition, picking one course of action among alternatives available is termed as decision-making as per Koontz and Weinrich. In the words of George Terry,†decision-making is the selection of a particular course of action, based on some criteria, from two or more possible alternatives. † We can define this concept also as the process of choosing between various alternatives for achieving a specified goal. Every decision must take into consideration needs and future uncertainties.As per Herbert Simon there are three major steps in the decision making process. Decision making is about choosing from several options or ideas and taking action to generate a particular result. It is usually considered to be a rational and logical thinking process. J>Recognition and understanding of the problem. J>Various alternatives may be developed. J>careful assessment of alternatives available for taking a better decisions. Characteristics J>Decision making is a continuous process. J>The question of decision-making process must always be rational when there are alternatives.J>A decision-making process must always be rational and purposeful. J>Decision making is an intellectual process supported by good reasoning and sound judgment. J>Decision making is all pervasive in the sense that all levels of managers need to take decisions of varied nature. J>Decision-making is always related to future only. Troes of Decisions: Managerial decision may be classified into two categories, the first category includes the typical, routine and unimportant decisions and the second category covers most important, vital and strategic decisions.Apart from decisions are taken at different levels for meeting different p roblems. Oraanisational Vs Personnel Decisions:- As explained by Chester. I. Bernard, the decisions taken by the manager in his official capacity are termed as Organisational decisions. These decisions have a direct bearing on the functioning of the firm. Decision relating to reward systems or transfer of workers can be cited as examples under this category. In contrast to this, some times, decisions may be taken by the manager in his individual capacity and such decisions are termed as personal decisions.They may partly affect the personal life and partly affect the organization. Example,decision to quit the organization comes under this category. Routine Vs Strategic Decision:- Routine decisions involve little risk and uncertainty. Hence, they do not call for extraordinary judgement and thinking. They are mostly related day-to-day conduct of the business and taken repetitively. That's why they are normally taken at lower levels of management. On the other hand strategic decisions are taken by the top level management. Either they are concerned with policy matters or with long-term commitments of the organization.They require thorough understanding, analysis and best judgement, pertaining to location of the plant, type of technology and channel of distribution are the best examples of this type. Policy Vs Operating Decisions:- Policy acts as guidelines for future action. Hence,decisions pertaining to policies are usually taken by the top management. They are considered to be very important since they affect the total organization. While operating decisions are administrative in character, they help in translating policies into action.Decisions relating to a new incentive scheme may be termed as a policy decision. Decisions relating to the methodology of implementation of such incentive scheme are termed as operating decisions. Programmed Vs Non-Programmed decisions:- Programmed decisions usually deals with routine and repetitive problems. For dealing such pro blems, systematic policies, procedures and rules are established. Programmed decisions can be taken with little ease as everything goes according to some set of rules. But Non-Programmed decisions cover mainly unexpected events and challenges.In other words, each problem is unique in nature. For dealing with such special problems, executives usually refer them to the top management, tackling such situations , the manager needs expertise,intuition and creative thinking. Individual Vs Group decisions:- Decisions taken by the individual in his personal capacity are known as individual decisions. Organisations which are small in size can accommodate this type of decision-making process. When organizations grow in size and stature, complex problems do come into picture.Group decisions are considered to be the best under such situations. Group decisions represent the thinking of more than one executive. The various steps involved in the decision-making process are as explained below:- Ste p 1 – Defining the oroblem The first step is to define the real problem, money and efforts are going to be wasted if the problem is not determined correctly. That' s why, accurate diagnosis of the real problem is necessary to find out right solution. We should look at the real causes and for the remedial measures by knowing the inner details of the problem.Knowing only the outer surface of the problem and arriving at decisions may lead to fallacious conclusions. SteP 2- AnalYSing the Problem Once the problem is clearly defined, then, it must be analysed in the light of data pertaining to various factors that surmount the decision. Every situation may have some advantages and limitations. Necessary steps should be laid on locating the limitations and obstacles in achieving the desired result. Necessary care should be exercised in avoiding personalized bias in judging the certain factors. Analysis of crucial factors provides a sound basis for making effective decisions.Step 3- Developing alternatives The analysis of the problem becomes complete once it throws light on several alternative solutions. In fact, the success of decision-making process depends upon the ability of an executive in developing alternative solutions to a given problem. This requires lot of imagination, experience and judgement. Exploring the positive or negative impact of such alternatives forms as a solid base for sound decisions. Step 4- Evaluating alternative Once the alternatives are developed , the next step is to evaluate them in terms of their cause, time , impact and objectives etc.Many a time, either marginal cost or cost-benefit analysis is used to bring out the tangible benefits of each of such alternatives. Each alternative solution may have its own merits and de-merits. They should be compared with other alternatives for the purpose of appraising the real impact. As per Mr. Peter F Drucker, the important criteria for evaluating the consequences of different alternatives are risk,economy, time and limitations. Steo 5- Selecting the best possible solution Selection usually involves choice making. It is the last step in decision-making process.The manager has to select such an alternative course of action which can make the maximum contribution to the goal. It is not always possible to select the best alternative for a given problem. That is why the manger has to rely upon such course of action which can yield good results under a given set of circumstances and limitations. Step 6- Imolementing the decision Once the best alternative is selected, it must be implemented. This step mainly deals with the execution of the decision taken. It involves development of step by step plans, selling the idea to sub-ordinates and seeking co-operation from the needy people.At this stage, the decision is converted into action. The decision must be implemented in the right time and that too in a proper way. Step 7- Evaluation of Decisions The last step in decision-mak ing process is evaluation. The actual results of the decision should be compared with the expected results in order to locate the reasons for deviations. This review is a continuous process and it generates information for necessary feedback for further improving the decision-making process in future. Rationality in decision-making Rationality refers to objective and intelligent action.A decision is said to be rational if appropriate means are chosen to accomplish desired objectives. It implies that decision-maker tries to maximize the values in a given situation by choosing the most suitable course of action. A good decision depends on the makers being consciously aware of the factors that set the stage for the decision. Obtaining complete rationality is not always possible. That is the reason why people prefer to take satisfactory decisions instead of ideal or optimum decisions. Managers are not always confronted by the problem of rationality in decision-making.In practice, they c onfine themselves to few important alternatives which have limited risks combined with favourable consequences. Limits of Rational Decision making Managers are not always rational in their decision-making. They cannot always abide by the demands of rationality in decision-making process. There are some limitations to that and of which are as explained below. Since decisions are related to future, Managers cannot foresee all the consequences accurately. Moreover, lack of complete knowledge about the problem also makes it impossible to choose a good decision.Due to time and cost constraints, all complex variables that have a bearing on decision cannot be examined fully. Hence, the decision maker is forced to strike a balance between complete rationality and hard realities on the ground. The impact of all the variables cannot be ascertained because some of them are intangible. The consequences of various alternatives cannot be anticipated accurately. Hence, decisions taken under uncert ainty cannot guarantee the success of decision-making process. The Human factors like value systems, perceptions, social factors, institution etc. are the main limits on rational decision-making. Managers, being human beings, are greatly influenced by their personal beliefs, attitudes and biases. Because of this, the capacity of a decision-making process varies from individual to individual and from situation to situation. Every manger is vitally concerned with the above limitations in his approach to rational decision-making. He has to collect all the relevant information and try to overcome the above limits on rationality and choose the most rational decision for solving any given problem. Ba†iers of Effective Decision MakingApart from the above limitations, decision-making process remains to be ineffective because of the existence of various barriers in organization structure. These barriers impede the process of identification of problems. It's analysis and the development of the solutions. The following are the important barriers that can block managerial effectiveness in choosing the most suitable decision as per Elbing. The tendency of a human-being to evaluate a given problem with pre-conceived notions, act as a stumbling block in understanding the real situation.Though it's dangerous, managers feel safer if they do not change what is familiar. Eventually, the ineffective decision of a familiar way becomes accepted rather than considering new and innovative means. Many managers fail to demarcate the symptoms from the main problem. Many mangers have a tendency to respond to the problem instantaneously without proper infonmation and thinking. If they gather more infonnation, they become rather than what is unique in new problem. The above problems are mainly responsible for either indecision or for half decision in the modern organizations.Knowledge of the above problems will surely help the managers in arriving at pragmatic decisions. The followin g suggestions can be offered to overcome the above barriers so as to make the managers more effective in decision-making process. Avoid premature evaluation. Initiate impartial probing by avoiding personal biases on the outcome. Develop a sound system that can supply adequate information for making decisions. Encourage group leaders to respond to a given situation and compare the pros and cons of the solutions offered by the two groups for making an effective decision.Encourage innovative thinking among the sub-ordinates so as to identify the crux of the problem without waste of time and money. When decisions of critical and pivotal in nature are to be taken, encourage group thinking. For this, the problem is to be presented to the sub-ordinates first and they are asked to develop as many solutions as possible in a free environment. Techniques of Decision -making Brainstorming:- Brainstorming is the oldest and widely followed technique for encouraging creative thinking. It was origi nally developed by A. F. Osbom. It involves the use of a group.This is an approach to improve problem discovery and solving by encouraging sub-ordinates to give their ideas and solutions in a free environment, they will generate creative ideas. Continuous interaction through free discussions may result in spontaneous and creative thinking. The larger the number of solutions , the fairer are the chances in locating an acceptable solution. The research proves that on hour brainstorming system is likely to generate 50 – 150 ideas. It is interesting to note that while most of them are proved to be impracticable, at least, some of them merit serious consideration.This group process is not without limitations. It continues lot of time and therefore,is an expensive exercise. Secondly,it emphasises only quantity of solutions which more often than not proved to be superficial. By overcoming the above limitations, a modern manager can use this an an effective tool. Some of the claimed advantages of the brainstorming technique include:-  » It reduces dependence on a single authority figure.  » It encourages the open sharing of ideas.  » It stimulates participation among group members. It provides individual safety in a competitive group.  » It maximizes output for a short period of time.  » It ensure a non evaluative climate.  » It tends to be enjoyable and stimulating. Synetics- When compared to Brainstorming, synectics is a new concept developed by William J. J. Gorden. The terms ‘Synectics' is derived from a Greek word which refers to â€Å"Fitting together of diverse elements†. It starts on the premise that this concept encourages novel thinking for the development of alternatives through putting together different ideas which are distinct from each other.A given problem is presented to a group of people with different backgrounds and varied experience. It is the responsibility of the group leader to present the problem and lead the di scussions in order to stimulate creative solutions. This approach ensures on the spot evaluation of members suggestions. The leader who is a technical expert is always assisting the group in evaluating the feasibility of their ideas. But experience shows that synectics has been less widely used than â€Å"Brainstorming†. When the problem is real tough and challenging, this approach is used for effective decision-making.Like Brainstorming it also suffers from the same range of limitations. The synectic techniwue includes the following steps:- Problem statement and background information stage:- The group leader describes the general area of discussion but avoids identifying the specific problem . Creative thinking on the problem is encouraged. The leader presents background information on the problem and the goals associated with the idea solutions. Good wishing stage:- Group members are encouraged to wish for anything that comes to mind that could address the problem.As in br ainstorming, in this â€Å"freewheeling stage† people are encouraged to generate wild ideas and to hitchhike. Exploring ideas and not evaluating them are of utmost importance at this stages. Excursion stage:- Paricipants are asked to forget about the specific problem. They are asked to generate ideas about a somewhat unrelated are that eventually might be related to the problem at hand. Forced-fit stage. Participants take ideas from the excursion stage and force them to fit the initial problem. Although this often appears quite unusual and obtuse, it is intended to encourage creativity.In fact,evidence suggests that many great thinkers develop ideas from such experimental thinking. Intemized response stage:- The group picks one of the ideas generated during the forced fit stage and pursues it further. The idea is dissected on only its positive aspects are identified. After all the positive aspects have been explored,the idea's limitations are addressed. This focus on the posi tive is intended to encourage productivity and creativity. The outcome of the synectic process is a single unique plan or decision that has undergone considerable evaluation.The process tends to produce innovative ideas. Synectic approach can be quite useful for creative planning and decision making. Its cost is high. Furthermore, it produces only one potential solution to a problem. If that solution turns out to be unusable,the problem remains, and the process has failed. The Nominal Group: The nominal group consists of people knowledgeable on the issue to be decided who are in the same physical location and who are aware of each other but who do not directly interact while they are working together.The specific techniques for using the nominal group in decision-making vary with the situation, but usually the following steps are involved. l> The manger brings the group together and outlines the problem. l>Each member of the group generates a number of ideas in writing. l>Each membe r then presents a single idea at a time to the entire group. The ideas are written on a blackboard or on large pieces of paper, and discussion of them is limited to clarification. When no further ideas merge, or when the manager feels the process has gone far enough, each member votes on the ideas, again in writing.The final decision is summed outcome of the individual votes, but the manager is free to accept or reject it. Ooerations Research:- The Origin and development of operations research is attributed to military operations and applications in 2†³Ã¢â‚¬  world war. The war put tremendous pressure on the use of available scarce resources for various strategic and tactical operations. The success of operations research in developing options of effective and efficient nature was instrumental in making this approach rather dependable in decision making process.Now-a-days, greater emphasis has been laid on the use of mathematical models to reflect different options and constra ints in a situation and their effect on a selected goal. This quantitative approach to decision-making is usually referred as â€Å"Operations Research†. Of late, it has become an invaluable tool in the kit of a decision-maker. Operations Research employs optimizing models like Linear Programming, Project Management,Inventory Control, Decision Theory and Waiting Line Theory.Operations Research is the systematic method of studying the basic structure, functions and relationships of an organization as an open system. It always adopts a systems approach to management in getting things done. It is constantly interested in developing optimal solution with limited resources in a given situation. It covers six steps in its approach to problem solving. They are: a. Identification of a problem. b. Construction of a mathematical model to investigate the problem. c. Developing a good solution. d. Testing of the model in the light, the data available. e.Identifying and setting up of cont rol points. f. Implementation of the option as a solution to a critical problem, putting a solution to work. In essence, Operations Research attempts to develop the best solution that will contribute to organizational goals. Limitations of Operation Research:- Operations Research technique is not †¢ panacea to all the problems of modern management. In other words, it is not the end. Since Operations Research does not take intangible aspects into consideration, subjective judgement becomes difficult under this model.As the Operations Research technique directly depends upon the use of mathematical and statistical tools,it is increasingly becoming complex and costly exercise. Since decision making is a human process,It cannot be predicted properly. At the same time, the impact of such factors cannot be measurable. Delphi Technique:- It is a technique normally used for forecasting future events. It is a group decision making technique. Under this method, independent opinions are s ought from the members repeatedly so as to develop a best solution to a given problem.The success of Delphi technique depends upon a simple technique of understanding the problem from the other man's perspective. This ensures success. Though it is a useful technique, since it involves time and cost,it can not be tried in all situations. At the operations level hundreds of de(isions are made in order to achieve local outcomes that contribute to the achievement of a company's overall strategic goal. However, all these decisions are interrelated and must be coordinated for the purpose of attaining the overall company goals. Many decisions-making situations occur under conditions of uncertainty.For example, the demand for a product may not be 100 units next week but may vary between 0 and 200 units, depending on the state of the market, which is uncertain. Decision analysis is a set of quantitative decision-making techniques to aid the decision maker in dealing with a decision situation in which there is uncertainty. However, the usefulness of decision analysis for decision making is also a beneficial topic to study because it reflects a structured, systematic approach to decision making that many decision makers follow intuitively without ever consciously thinking about it.Decision analysis represents not only a collection of decision-making techniques but also an analysis of logic underlying decision making. The general process of the Delphi technique follows: A panel of people who are knowledgeable about a particular problem is selected. The members of the group never actually meet. The panel can have members both inside and outside the organization, and the individual members may or may not know who the other members are. A questionnaire about the problem to be solved is sent to each members of the panel. Each person is asked to make anonymous suggestions.These suggestions are pooled, and a feedback report is developed. The feedback report and a more advanced, second stage questionnaire are sent back to the panel members. Each panel member independently evaluates the feedback report, votes on the priority of the ideas contained in it, and generates new ideas based on it. The process is repeated until a consensus is reached or until the manager feels that sufficient information has been received to make a decision. A final summary feedback report is developed and set back to the group members. A major advantage of the Delphi approach is its anonymity.In groups that interact face-to-face, one person may dominate, or everyone may watch the manager for clues to what is wanted. Further is interacting groups and individual may take a stand and not want to back down for fear of losing face. Frequently experts are more concerned with defending their position than with reaching a good decision. Electronic meetings: The most recent approach to group decision making blends the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer technology. It's cal led the electronic meeting. The major advantages of electronic meetings are anonymity, honestly and speed.Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it flashes on the screen for all to see at the push of a participant's board key. It also allows people to be brutally honest without penalty. And it's fast because chitchat is eliminated, discussions don't digress and many participants can â€Å"talk† at once without stepping on one another's toes. Experts claim that electronic meetings are as much as fifty five percent faster than traditional face to face meetings. Phelps Dodge Mining for instance, used the approach to cut its annual planning meeting from several days down to twelve hours.Yet there are drawbacks to this technique. Those who can type fast can outshine those who are verbally eloquent but lousy typists, those with the best ideas don't get credit for them, and the process lacks the information richness of face to face-to-face oral communication. Bu t although this technology is currently in its infancy, the future of group decision making is very likely to include extensive use of electronic meetings. Decision making without probabilities:- A decision making situation includes several components, the decision themselves and events that may occur in the future, known as states of nature.Future states of nature may be high or low demand for a product or good or bad economic conditions. At the time a decision is made, the decision maker is uncertain which state of nature will occur in the future and has no control over these states of nature. When the probabilities can be assigned to the occurrence of states of nature in the future, the situation is referred to as â€Å"decision making under risk†. When probabilities cannot be assigned to the occurrence of future events, the situation is called â€Å"decision making under uncertainty†.Each decision will result in an outcome or payoff, for each state of nature that w ill occur in the future. Payoffs are typically expressed in terms of profit, revenues, or cost. For example, if decision 1 is to expand a production facility and state of nature a is good economic conditions, payoff la could b e $100,000 in profit. Once the decision situation has been organized into a payoff table, several criteria are available to reflect how the decision maker arrives at a decision, including maximax, maximin, minimax regret, Hurwicz, and equal likelyhood.These criteria reflect different degrees of decision-maker conservatism or liberalism. On occasion they result in the same decision; however, they often yield different results. Different decision criteria often result in a mix of decisions. The criteria used and the resulting decisions depend on the decision maker. For example, the extremely optimistic decision maker might disregard the preceding results and make the decision to maintain the status quo, because the maximax criterion reflects his or her personal decision-making philosophy.